Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Who practices yoga? A systematic review of demographic, health-related, and psychosocial factors associated with yoga practice

  • Published:
Journal of Behavioral Medicine Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Yoga has become increasingly popular in the US and around the world, yet because most yoga research is conducted as clinical trials or experiments, little is known about the characteristics and correlates of people who independently choose to practice yoga. We conducted a systematic review of this issue, identifying 55 studies and categorizing correlates of yoga practice into sociodemographics, psychosocial characteristics, and mental and physical well-being. Yoga use is greatest among women and those with higher socioeconomic status and appears favorably related to psychosocial factors such as coping and mindfulness. Yoga practice often relates to better subjective health and health behaviors but also with more distress and physical impairment. However, evidence is sparse and methodological limitations preclude drawing causal inferences. Nationally representative studies have minimally assessed yoga while studies with strong assessment of yoga practice (e.g., type, dose) are generally conducted with convenience samples. Almost all studies reviewed are cross-sectional and few control for potential confounding variables. We provide recommendations for future research to better understand the correlates of yoga practice.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Balakrishanan, R., Nachimuthu, P., & Varthini, R. (2007). Yoga attitude and USHA well-being among yoga practitioners. Journal of Indian Psychology, 25, 59–63.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bankar, M., Chaudhari, S., & Chaudhari, K. (2013). Impact of long term Yoga practice on sleep and quality of life in the elderly. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, 4, 28–32.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bertisch, S. M., Wee, C. C., & McCarthy, E. P. (2008). Use of complementary and alternative therapies by overweight and obese adults. Obesity, 16, 1610–1615.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bertisch, S. M., Wee, C. C., Phillips, R. S., & McCarthy, E. P. (2009). Alternative mind-body therapies used by adults with medical conditions. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 66, 511–519.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Birdee, G. S., Legedza, A. T., Saper, R. B., Bertisch, S. M., Eisenberg, D. M., & Phillips, R. S. (2008). Characteristics of yoga users: Results of a national survey. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 23, 1653–1658.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnes P. M., Bloom, B., & Nahin R. L. (2008) Complementary and alternative medicine use among adults and children: United States, 2007. National Health Statistics Report.

  • Bock, B. C., Morrow, K. M., Becker, B. M., Williams, D. M., Tremont, G., Gaskins, R. B., & Marcus, B. H. (2010). Yoga as a complementary treatment for smoking cessation. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 10, 14.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bradshaw, D. H., Donaldson, G. W., & Okifuji, A. (2012). Pain uncertainty in patients with fibromyalgia, yoga practitioners, and healthy volunteers. International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 22, 37–46.

  • Brisbon, N. M., & Lowery, G. A. (2011). Mindfulness and levels of stress: A comparison of beginner and advanced Hatha Yoga practitioners. Journal of Religion and Health, 50, 931–941.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buettner, C., Kroenke, C. H., Phillips, R. S., Davis, R. B., Eisenberg, D. M., & Holmes, M. D. (2006). Correlates of use of different types of complementary and alternative medicine by breast cancer survivors in the Nurses’ Health Study. Breast Cancer Research and Treatment, 100, 219–227.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carbonneau, N., Vallerand, R. J., & Massicotte, S. (2010). Is the practice of yoga associated with positive outcomes? The role of passion. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 452–465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cella, D. F. (1994). Quality of life: Concepts and definition. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management, 9, 186–192.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conboy, L., Patel, S., Kaptchuk, T. J., Gottlieb, B., Eisenberg, D., & Acevedo-Garcia, D. (2005). Sociodemographic determinants of the utilization of specific types of complementary and alternative medicine. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 11, 977–994.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Langhorst, J., Dobos, G., & Paul, A. (2013a). Quality of life and mental health in patients with chronic diseases who regularly practice yoga and those who do not: A case-control study. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. doi:10.1155/2013/702914.

  • Cramer, H., Lauche, R., Langhorst, J., Paul, A., Michalsen, A., & Dobos, G. (2013b). Predictors of yoga use among internal medicine patients. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 13, 172.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dale, L. P., Carroll, L. E., Galen, G. C., Schein, R., Bliss, A., Mattison, A. M., & Neace, W. P. (2011). Yoga practice may buffer the deleterious effects of abuse on women’s self-concept and dysfunctional coping. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 20, 90–102.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daubenmier, J. J. (2005). The relationship of yoga, body awareness, and body responsiveness to self-objectification and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 207–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delaney, K., & Anthis, K. (2010). Is women’s participation in different types of yoga classes associated with different levels of body awareness satisfaction? International Journal of Yoga Therapy, 1, 62–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeNavas-Walt, C., Cleveland, R. W., & Webster Jr, B. H. (2003). Income in the United States: 2002. US Census Bureau, Current Population Reports, (pp. 60–221). Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.

  • Desai, K., Bowman, M., Galantino, M. L., Hughes-Halbert, C., Vapiwala, N., DeMichele, A., & Mao, J. (2010). Predictors of yoga use among patients with breast cancer. Explore, 6, 359–363.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ding, D., & Stamatakis, E. (2014). Yoga practice in England 1997–2008: prevalence, temporal trends, and correlates of participation. BMC Research Notes, 7, 172. doi:10.1186/1756-0500-7-172

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dittmann, K. A., & Freedman, M. R. (2009). Body awareness, eating attitudes, and spiritual beliefs of women practicing yoga. Eating Disorders, 17, 273–292.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Field, T. (2011). Yoga clinical research review. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 17, 1–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fouladbakhsh, J. M., & Stommel, M. (2010). Gender, symptom experience, and use of complementary and alternative medicine practices among cancer survivors in the U.S. cancer population. Oncology Nursing Forum, 37, E7–E15.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Framson, C., Kristal, A. R., Schenk, J. M., Littman, A. J., Zeliadt, S., & Benitez, D. (2009). Development and validation of the Mindful Eating Questionnaire. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 109, 1439–1444.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garrow, D., & Egede, L. E. (2006). National patterns and correlates of CAM use in adults with diabetes. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 12, 895–902.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gill, A., & Kumar, A. (2014). Comparative study of locus of control between yogic and non-yogic female students of Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra. International Journal of Physical Education Sports Management and Yogic Sciences, 4, 19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gold, E. B., Bair, Y., Zhang, G., Utts, J., Greendale, G. A., Upchurch, D., & Adler, S. (2007). Cross-sectional analysis of specific CAM use by racial/ethnic group and menopausal status. Menopause, 14, 612–623.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graham, R. E., Ahn, A. C., Davis, R. B., O’Connor, B. B., Eisenberg, D. M., & Phillips, R. S. (2005). Use of CAM therapies among racial and ethnic minority adults. Journal of the National Medical Association, 97, 535–545.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hasselle-Newcombe, S. (2005). Spirituality and “mystical religion” in contemporary society: A case study of British practitioners of the Iyengar method of yoga. Journal of Contemporary Religion, 20, 305–322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ivtzan, I., & Papantoniou, A. (2014). Yoga meets positive psychology. Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies, 18, 183–189.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Christian, L. M., Andridge, R., Hwang, B. S., Malarkey, W. B., Belury, M., & Glaser, R. (2012). Adiponectin, leptin, and yoga practice. Physiology & Behavior, 107, 809–813.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Christian, L., Preston, H., Houts, C. R., Malarkey, W., Emery, C. F., & Glaser, R. (2010). Stress, inflammation, and yoga practice. Psychosomatic Medicine, 72, 113–121.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kraemer, J. M., & Marquez, D. X. (2009). Psychosocial correlates and outcomes of yoga or walking among older adults. The Journal of Psychology, 143, 390–404.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kristal, A. R., Littman, A. J., Benitez, D., & White, E. (2005). Yoga practice is associated with attenuated weight gain in healthy, middle-aged men and women. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 11, 28–33.

  • Lafaille, R. (1997). An evaluation study on yoga as a healthy life style program. Antwerpen. Retrieved from http://www.iiahs.net/publicat_files/yogaarticle120.pdf

  • Li, A. W., & Goldsmith, C.-A. W. (2012). The effects of yoga on anxiety and stress. Alternative Medicine Review, 17, 21–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mao, J. J., Palmer, C. S., Healy, K. E., Desai, K., & Amsterdam, J. (2010). Complementary and alternative medicine use among cancer survivors: A population-based study. Journal of Cancer Survivorship, 5, 8–17.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mehta, D. H., Phillips, R. S., Davis, R. B., & McCarthy, E. P. (2007). Use of complementary and alternative therapies by Asian Americans. Results from the National Health Interview Survey. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22, 762–767.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moliver, N., Mika, E., Chartrand, M., Burrus, S., Haussmann, R., & Khalsa, S. (2011). Increased Hatha yoga experience predicts lower body mass index and reduced medication use in women over 45 years. International Journal of Yoga, 4, 77–86.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moliver, N., Mika, E., Chartrand, M., Haussmann, R., & Khalsa, S. (2013). Yoga experience as a predictor of psychological wellness in women over 45 years. International Journal of Yoga, 6, 11–19.

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Monk-Turner, E., & Turner, C. (2010). Does yoga shape body, mind and spiritual health and happiness: Differences between yoga practitioners and college students. International Journal of Yoga, 3, 48–54.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neumark-Sztainer, D., Eisenberg, M. E., Wall, M., & Loth, K. A. (2011). Yoga and pilates: Associations with body image and disordered-eating behaviors in a population-based sample of young adults. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 44, 276–280.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson, A. J. (2013). Is yoga Hindu? Common Knowledge, 19, 490–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Palasuwan, A., Margaritis, I., Soogarun, S., & Rousseau, A.-S. (2011). Dietary intakes and antioxidant status in mind-body exercising pre- and postmenopausal women. The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging, 15, 577–584.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. L., Cho, D., & Wortmann, J. H. (2013). The impact of yoga upon young adult cancer survivors. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 19, 77–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Park, C. L., Riley, K. E., Besedin, E., & Stewart, V. M. (in press). Why practice yoga? Practitioners’ motivations for starting and continuing yoga. Journal of Health Psychology.

  • Penman, S., Cohen, M., Stevens, P., & Jackson, S. (2012). Yoga in Australia: Results of a national survey. International Journal of Yoga, 5, 92–101.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prichard, I., & Tiggemann, M. (2008). Relations among exercise type, self-objectification, and body image in the fitness centre environment. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9, 855–866.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ross, A., Friedmann, E., Bevans, M., & Thomas, S. (2012). Frequency of yoga practice predicts health. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. Article ID 983258.

  • Ross, A., Friedmann, E., Bevans, M., & Thomas, S. (2013). National survey of yoga practitioners: Mental and physical health benefits. Complementary Therapies in Medicine, 21, 313–323.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saper, R. B., Eisenberg, D. M., Davis, R. B., Culpepper, L., & Phillips, R. S. (2004). Prevalence and patterns of adult yoga use in the United States: Results of a national survey. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 10, 44–49.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Satin, J. R., Linden, W., & Millman, R. D. (2014). Yoga and Psychophysiological Determinants of Cardiovascular Health: Comparing Yoga Practitioners, Runners, and Sedentary Individuals. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 47, 231–241.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shah, S. H., Engelhardt, R., & Ovbiagele, B. (2008). Patterns of complementary and alternative medicine use among US stroke survivors. Journal of the Neurological Sciences, 271, 180–185.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, H. A., Matthews, A., Markovic, N., Youk, A., Danielson, M. E., & Talbott, E. O. (2010). A comparative study of complementary and alternative medicine use among heterosexually and lesbian identified women: Data from the ESTHER Project (Pittsburgh, PA, 2003–2006). The Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 16, 1161–1170.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, K. D., Kaw, C., Crammer, C., & Gansler, T. (2009). The role of psychological functioning in the use of complementary and alternative methods among disease-free colorectal cancer survivors. Cancer, 115, 4397–4408.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Upchurch, D. M., Dye, C. E., Chyu, L., Gold, E. B., & Greendale, G. A. (2010). Demographic, behavioral, and health correlates of complementary and alternative medicine and prayer use among midlife women: 2002. Journal of Women’s Health, 19, 23–30.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Tilburg, M. A., Palsson, O. S., Levy, R. L., Feld, A. D., Turner, M. J., Drossman, D. A., & Whitehead, W. E. (2008). Complementary and alternative medicine use and cost in functional bowel disorders. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 8, 46.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Venkatesh, S., Pal, M., Negi, B. S., Varma, V. K., et al. (1994). A comparative study of yoga practitioners and controls on certain psychological variables. Indian Journal of Clinical Psychology, 21, 22–27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vera, F. M., Manzaneque, J. M., Maldonado, E. F., Carranque, G. A., Rodriguez, F. M., Blanca, M. J., & Morell, M. (2009). Subjective sleep quality and hormonal modulation in long-term yoga practitioners. Biological Psychology, 81, 164–168.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Villemure, C., Ceko, M., Cotton, V. A., & Bushnell, M. C. (2014). Insular cortex mediates increased pain tolerance in yoga practitioners. Cerebral Cortex, 24, 2732–2740.

  • Wells, R. E., Bertisch, S. M., Buettner, C., Phillips, R. S., & McCarthy, E. P. (2011). Complementary and alternative medicine use among adults with migraines/severe headaches. Headache, 51, 1087–1097.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yoshihara, K., Hiramoto, T., Sudo, N., & Kubo, C. (2011). Profile of mood states and stress-related biochemical indices in long-term yoga practitioners. BioPsychoSocial Medicine, 5, 6.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zajac, A. U., & Schier, K. (2011). Body image dysphoria and motivation to exercise: A study of Canadian and Polish women participating in yoga or aerobics. Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 4, 67–72.

Download references

Conflict of interest

Crystal L. Park, Tosca Braun and Tamar Siegel declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

All procedures followed were in accordance with ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation (institutional and national) and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000. Informed consent was obtained from all patients for being included in the study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Connecticut, Box 1020, Storrs, CT, 06269, USA

    Crystal L. Park, Tosca Braun & Tamar Siegel

Authors
  1. Crystal L. Park
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tosca Braun
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Tamar Siegel
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Crystal L. Park.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (DOC 205 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Park, C.L., Braun, T. & Siegel, T. Who practices yoga? A systematic review of demographic, health-related, and psychosocial factors associated with yoga practice. J Behav Med 38, 460–471 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-015-9618-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-015-9618-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation